Vista from "Lone Cone" (742 m) to the forested slopes of Meares Island, Canada's west coast

Estuary of Meares Creek at Meares Island

Temperate rainforest on Flores Island, Canada's west coast, with Pacific silver fir (Abies amabilis), western hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla) and western redcedar (Thuja plicata). As a result of frequent storms sweeping in from the Pacific, wind blow is common, opening up the canopy and promoting the formation of a high dense shrub layer, here with huckleberries (Vaccinium spp.), salal (Gaultheria shallon) and blackberries (Rubus spp.)

Flores Island. Late-successional trees Pacific silver fir and western hemlock have taken this site. Western swordfern (Polystichum munitum) on the forest floor

Cheewhat Lake Cedar, the largest western redcedar (volume approx. 450 cubic metres, diameter almost 6 m, height 55 m), in Pacific Rim National Park Reserve on Canada's west coast. Other trees are western hemlocks. Salal shrubs in the foreground

Giant Sitka spruce (Picea sitchensis) in Stoltman Grove of Carmanah Walbran Provincial Park, close to Canada's west coast, with smaller western hemlock and a single Pacific silver fir (in front of the author). In the foreground undergrowth with snakeberry (Maianthemum dilatatum)

Large Sitka spruce and smaller western hemlock in Carmanah Walbran Provincial Park. Undergrowth with snakeberry and western swordfern

Unprotected Edinburgh Mountain Ancient Forest close to Canada's west coast. Large western redcedar and smaller western hemlock. In the foreground western swordfern

Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) forest in MacMillan Provincial Park, near Canada's west coast. Also western hemlock, centre foreground. Western swordfern undergrowth

Douglas-fir forest in MacMillan Provincial Park. Also western hemlock (left and saplings) and red elderberry (Sambucus racemosa, shrub, extreme left)

Giant Sitka spruce in Olympic National Park, northwestern USA, in the valley of South Fork Hoh River. On the forest floor in the foreground redwood sorrel (Oxalis oregana)

Red alder (Alnus rubra) grove in Quinault Valley, Olympic National Park

Vista to Morse Creek Valley from Morse Creek Lookout Rock (760 m) in Olympic National Park. Valley bottom here at 360 m

Giant Douglas-fir in Olympic National Forest, adjacent to Olympic National Park

Extremely heavy concentration of large Douglas-fir and western redcedar (left) called "Miracle Acre" in Olympic National Forest. Smaller trees are western hemlocks

Mount Rainier National Park at 520 m in northwestern USA. Western hemlock, western redcedar and Sitka spruce. In the foreground skunk cabbage (Lysichiton americanus) on wet soil

Extremely biomass-dense (1687 t/ha) noble fir (Abies procera) grove in Goat Marsh Research Natural Area, Mt. St. Helens, northwestern USA, at 900 m elevation. Also Douglas-fir (reddish trunk, left background) and western hemlock (with foliage almost to the ground)

Rays of sunlight break through the towering canopy of coast redwood (Sequoia sempervirens) to illuminate the dark forest floor carpeted by western swordfern. In Jedediah Smith Redwoods State Park near Californian coast, the average canopy may be as tall as 90 m in some stands. Dense groves are usually composed of medium sized trees which have not yet reached maximum age, but still contain many trees over 3 m in diameter. Elevation is over 100 m

Dense coast redwood forest growing on gentle valley slopes in Prairie Creek Redwoods State Park near Californian coast at 80 m elevation. The tree to the right has a diameter of approx. 6 m. Undergrowth with western swordfern

Coast redwood forest with western swordfern undergrowth in Prairie Creek Redwoods State Park. Also one Sitka spruce, background right

Extremely biomass-dense coast redwood stand on Lower Bull Creek Flat, Humboldt Redwoods State Park, California. Undergrowth with redwood sorrel and some western swordfern

Sequoia National Park in Sierra Nevada, California. Sugar pine (Pinus lambertiana, trees with long horizontal branches), California white fir (Abies lowiana) and red fir (Abies magnifica)

House Group of giant sequoia (Sequoiadendron giganteum) at 2115 m elevation in Sequoia National Park. The thinner trees are California white fir

Very dense giant sequoia stand called Sugar Bowl Grove at 2000 m elevation in Kings Canyon National Park, Sierra Nevada

California white fir (dark trunks), giant sequoia (reddish trunks), sugar pine (extreme right background). Kings Canyon National Park

Red fir forest at 2300 m elevation in Yosemite National Park, Sierra Nevada

Grove of towering red fir blanketed by snow in Yosemite National Park at nearly 2500 m in elevation. The giant leaning tree in the center is the champion for its species with a diameter of 2.9 m, height of 52 m, and volume which can be estimated at 80 cubic metres

Stream winds through magnificent giant sequoia groves mixed with California white fir in the North Grove of Calaveras Big Trees State Park, Sierra Nevada. Elevation is ~1500m

Subalpine Sierra lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta var. murrayana) woodland at approx. 2700 m elevation in Mokelumne Wilderness, Sierra Nevada

Very large ponderosa pines (Pinus ponderosa) and incense cedars (Calocedrus decurrens) in Tahoe National Forest, Sierra Nevada. The pine in the background has a dbh of nearly 2.5m and the cedar to the right has a dbh of ~1.7m. Both species can reach up to about 3m in dbh and heights of well over 60m. Elevation is ~1900m

Old growth quaking apen (Populus tremuloides) grove, with young Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii var. glauca) trees in the background in Lamar Haines Memorial Wildlife Area, southwestern USA. Elevation is ~2200m

Large fallen ponderosa pine on a slope of sandy volcanic rock in Sunset Crater Volcano National Monument, southwestern USA. For scale, the man in the photo is 193cm tall. Elevation is ~2400m

Valles Caldera National Preserve, southwestern USA. At ~2500m there is far more precipitation than the deserts below, allowing forest to develop. These forests are mostly composed of conifers which can tolerate extreme cold, such as ponderosa pine, Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir and blue spruce (Picea pungens). Large tree to the left background is a douglas-fir snag

The surreal desert formations of Bryce Canyon National Park, western USA, hold patches of old growth forest, often in inaccessible locations near the ridges. These are conifer forests adapted to the dry and cold climate, with some Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir in shady sites, as well as Ponderosa Pine. There are also spruce, pine, and fir of other species, depending on exposure and location. This canyon is home to the greatest concentration of “Hoodoo” spire formations on Earth. Elevation is over 2300m

Old Ponderosa Pine tree in Bryce Canyon, with a base burned by fire. It is about a meter in dbh. Also another large pine in the background to the right, as well as some common junipers (Juniperus communis) in the lower layer. Elevation is below 2000m

Grove of large and perhaps 30m tall Ponderosa pine trees growing in a ravine by the canyon wall in Zion National Park, western USA. The largest seem to have a dbh of over a meter. Elevation is about 2000m

Lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta var. latifolia) forest on wet soil at 2360 m elevation in Yellowstone National Park, American Rocky Mountains

Lodgepole pine forest at 2375 m in Yellowstone National Park. Dominance of lodgepole pine is maintained by wildfires

Western redcedar forest at 1000 m elevation in Glacier National Park, west of Canadian Rocky Mountains

Western redcedar forest with small western hemlock (left centre) at 1025 m elevation in Glacier National Park. Devil's club (Oplopanax horridus) undergrowth

Subalpine fir (Abies lasiocarpa) woodland at approx. 1900 m in Mount Revelstoke National Park, west of Canadian Rocky Mountains

Low elevationsl of Wells Gray Provincial Park, west of Canadian Rockies, closely resemble southern Finland climatically

Wells Gray Provincial Park

Hybrid spruce (Picea glauca × engelmannii) dominated forest on Emerald Lake at 1300 m in Yoho National Park, Canadian Rocky Mountains. Also subalpine fir (very narrow crowns) and lodgepole pine (the dead trees killed by mountain pine beetle (Dendroctonus ponderosae) outbreak)

Yoho River at 1320 m in Yoho National Park

Dense wildfire-originated lodgepole pine forest at 1560 m in Banff National Park, Canadian Rocky Mountains. Saplings of hybrid spruce and subalpine fir

Autumn colours of subalpine larch (Larix lyallii) in Larch Valley, Banff National Park

Overlander Falls at 840 m in Mount Robson Provincial Park in Canadian Rocky Mountains

Plains cottonwood (Populus deltoides ssp. monilifera) floodplain forest along Red Deer River in Dinosaur Provincial Park, Canadian prairies. The grassland strip is former river channel and still often flooded

Prince Albert National Park, central Canada, has a continental climate. Boreal forest over thick glacial till sediments is dominated by black spruce (Picea mariana). Also quaking aspen (with furrowed bark) and dense balsam fir (Abies balsamea) regeneration, background. Field layer is rich with e.g. Canadian dwarf cornel (Cornus canadensis) with orange berries

Old black spruce forest with thick moss cover in Prince Albert National Park. Also quaking aspen sprouts

Central Canadian boreal forest in Duck Mountain Provincial Park with white spruce (Picea glauca) and quaking aspen (furrowed bark). Undergrowth with wild sarsaparilla (Aralia nudicaulis). Shrubs in the background are chokecherry (Prunus virginiana, centre) and speckled alder (Alnus incana subsp. rugosa, right)

Hemiboreal forest on thin soil in Quetico Provincial Park, east-central Canada. Black spruce dominates. In the foreground two larger jack pines (Pinus banksiana). Saplings of balsam fir, in the opening also of paper birch (Betula papyrifera)

Fred Lake in Quetico Provincial Park. The forest has regenerated after wildfires. Mainly jack pine and black spruce (narrow crowns). Also a few wide crowns of fire-resistant eastern white pine (Pinus strobus) in the background

Fire-resistant tree species red pine (Pinus resinosa) at Elisabeth Lake in Quetico Provincial Park. Also saplings of showy mountain-ash (Sorbus decora, bottom), eastern white pine (bottom centre) and balsam fir (bottom left and background)

Wet forest at eastern shore of Canadian Lake Superior in Michipicoten Post Provincial Park, also called boreal rainforest, with white-cedar (Thuja occidentalis) and mountain paper birch (Betula cordifolia, with white bark). Also seedlings of mountain maple (Acer spicatum, bottom)

Beaver Pond in South Michipicoten River–Superior Shoreline Conservation Reserve at eastern shore of Canadian Lake Superior. White-cedar saplings, bottom right. Background mainly white spruce, black spruce, balsam fir, white-cedar and mountain paper birch

Yellow birch (Betula alleghaniensis) dominated temperate broadleaf forest along Grande Anse Creek in Grande Anse Valley, Cape Breton Highlands National Park, near Canada's eastern coast

Otter Lake at 430 m in Cape Breton Highlands National Park. Very low (approx. 10 m) forest of balsam fir and white spruce

Temperate forest in Porcupine Mountains Wilderness State Park, northern USA.

Eastern hemlock (Tsuga canadensis) forest in Porcupine Mountains Wilderness State Park

Estivant Pines Nature Sanctuary, northern USA. Two large eastern white pines, balsam fir and sugar maple (Acer saccharum). Also red maple (Acer rubrum) sapling, bottom left

Cook Forest State Park, eastern USA

Magnificent cove hardwood forest in Albright Grove at around 1000 m, Great Smoky Mountains National Park, eastern USA, with tulip trees (Liriodendron tulipifera, left with golden foliage), eastern hemlocks (conifers) and sugar maples (foliage top right). Dense undergrowth of Catawba rosebay (Rhododendron catawbiense). The tree species composition is incredibly diverse, yet the most dominant trees tend to be hemlocks and tulip trees. The largest trees in the grove are tulip trees and several exceed 2m in diameter and 50m in height

Misty high elevation forest around the peak of Clingman’s Dome in Great Smoky Mountains National Park above 1700 m elevation with red spruce (Picea rubens) and Fraser fir (Abies fraseri)

The old growth forests of Joyce Kilmer Memorial Forest, eastern USA, are dominated by grand examples of tulip tree, exceeding 2 m in diameter and reaching up to around 50 m in height. Aside from these frequent trees, there is also eastern hemlock, as well as a great variety of broadleaf species. Many tulip trees tower out of the forest like columns which are free of branches for at least half of their height. Elevation is around 800m

The largest tulip tree found near the upper loop trail in Joyce Kilmer Memorial Forest has a diameter of nearly 250cm. Its height is ~50m. Elevation is ~800m

Sky Lake Wildlife Management Area, southern USA. Ancient bald cypress (Taxodium distichum) groves tend to have a relatively open structure due to the seasonal high-water flooding. Elevation is not much higher than sealevel

Sky Lake Wildlife Management Area. Giant bald cypress tree with a half-decayed base to the left, measuring nearly 3.5 m in diameter with a massive trunk even above the tapering. Many of these ancient trees are hollow and missing their tops, unsurprising for trees which can exceed 1000 years in age

Old growth lowland forest with giant bald cypress trees in the water and mixed broadleaf forests away from the blackwater bayou (in photo) in Cat Island National Wildlife Refuge, southern USA. The large tree to the right is about 3 m in dbh. Elevation is not much higher than sealevel

Old growth grove of giant bald cypress and water tupelo (Nyssa aquatica) trees growing in a pond with dense duckweed (Lemna sp.) cover in Cat Island National Wildlife Refuge. Cypress trees regularly reach 3 m in cbh here, and some can even reach 5 m. They can live over 3000 years. Water tupelo may reach over 2 m

Ridge at 600 m in Shiretoko National Park, northern Japan. Erman's birch (Betula ermanii, with whitish bark) and Mongolian oak (Quercus mongolica). Undergrowth with dwarf bamboo (Sasa sp.)

High elevations of Shiretoko National Park. Dark areas are impenetrable thickets of Siberian dwarf pine (Pinus pumila). Lighter green areas: Erman's birch dominated krummholz

Yakushima Wilderness Area, southern Japan, at 1250 m. Very heavy precipitation throughout the year averaging 8000 mm/y. Japanese cedar (Cryptomeria japonica, large trunks), wheel tree (Trochodendron aralioides, broadleaf trees background and foliage top foreground), mochi tree (Ilex integra, small trees), Japanese sapphireberry (Symplocos myrtacea, shrubs)

Japanese cedar (straight trunks) – wheel tree (broadleaf trees) forest in Yakushima Wilderness Area

Large Japanese evergreen oak (Quercus acuta) in Yakushima Wilderness Area at 900 m

Tropical rainforest in Taman Negara, Peninsular Malaysia. Greyish crowns of Rubroshorea curtisii, slow-growing large climax species, common in ridgetop forest

Large Dipterocarpus cornutus in Taman Negara

69.3-metre Koompassia excelsa in Taman Negara. In the fertile volcanic soils of eastern Sabah, the species can even be almost 20 m taller

Tengku Hassanal Wildlife Reserve, Peninsular Malaysia. Greyish crowns, top and centre: Rubroshorea curtisii, the most important large tree at Krau's low elevations, dominant particularly along ridges

Tropical Evergreen Seasonal Rainforest in Monkhouse Timber Reserve, northeastern Australia. Grey silky oak (Musgravea stenostachya, the pale trunk, right), hickory wattle (Acacia celsa, reddish trunk next left), golden penda (Xanthostemon chrysanthus, big dark trunk with foot in water behind big triangular stone)

Monkhouse Timber Reserve. Satinash (Syzygium monimioides, leaning over the creek from the left), golden penda (leaning over the creek from the right)

Tropical Evergreen Seasonal Rainforest in Daintree National Park, northeastern Australia, at 120 m. Spur mahogany (Dysoxylum pettigrewianum, large tree, foreground)

Daintree National Park at 420 m. White Eungella gum (Syzygium wesa, left, with reddish trunk), carabeen (Aceratium megalospermum, right centre, with strongly fluted trunk). The big tree, centre (not identified), with strangling fig (Ficus sp.). White aspen (Medicosma fareana, pale trunk between the white Eungella gum and the fig). In shrub layer rattan palms (Calamus sp.)

Barrington Tops National Park, eastern Australia, with rather high precipitation. On the ridges eucalypt forest (light green canopies), in the valleys diverse so-called rainforest trees, on the steep slope in the background Antarctic beech (Nothofagus moorei) forest, on the mountain top snow gum (Eucalyptus pauciflora) forest. Below the acute peak (Careys Peak, 1545 m), a landslip area

Barrington Tops National Park at 1430 m. Sassafras (Doryphora sassafras, the dense-crowned trees) invading Antarctic beech (thicker trunks) forest. Also soft tree fern (Dicksonia antarctica)

Dry eucalypt forest in Wollemi National Park, eastern Australia. Sydney red gum (Angophora costata) on the right with reddish trunk

Signs of wildfire in dry eucalypt woodland along a stream in Blue Mountains National Park, eastern Australia

Kanangra-Boyd National Park, eastern Australia. Kanangra Gorge from the edge of Boyd Plateau. Valley bottom at 500 m, tops at 1000 m. Dry eucalyptus forest

Eucalypt forest in Snowy River National Park, southeastern Australia, at 330 m. Red stringybark (Eucalyptus macrorhyncha, coarse bark), Gippsland blue gum (Eucalyptus pseudoglobulus, shedding bark), Australian blackwood (Acacia melanoxylon, low trees with dense foliage)

Manna gum (Eucalyptus viminalis) grove at 220 m in Snowy River National Park. Also silver wattle (Acacia dealbata, bottom left)

Rodger River at 170 m in Snowy River National Park. Water gum (Tristaniopsis laurina) on the bank. Behind it yellow stringybark (Eucalyptus muelleriana) – apple-topped box (Eucalyptus angophoroides) forest. Above water gum also silver wattle (yellowish with old flowers)

Tarra-Bulga National Park, southeastern Australia, at 620 m. Approx. 60 m tall mountain ash (Eucalyptus regnans) forest on the ridge. Soft tree fern in gully, bottom left. Also myrtle beech (Nothofagus cunninghamii, extreme right), slender tree fern (Cyathea cunninghamii, tall tree ferns, centre), rough tree fern (Cyathea australis, tall tree ferns visible between myrtle beech branches)

About 70-metre (foreground) and about 65-metre (left) mountain ash in Tarra-Bulga National Park. Mountain ash forest in the background. Myrtle beech dominates the gully slopes in between

Myrtle beech dominated temperate evergreen broadleaf forest in Tarkine Wilderness, Tasmania. Also southern sassafras (Atherosperma moschatum) and leatherwood (Eucryphia lucida)

Tarkine Wilderness at 180 m. Myrtle beech, left. Southern sassafras and leatherwood, smoothbarked trees in the background. Soft tree fern, right and background

Eastons Creek at 250 m in Tarkine Wilderness. Australian blackwood, centre, with round crown. Leatherwood, with white flowers

Soft tree fern and leatherwood in Franklin-Gordon Wild Rivers National Park, Tasmania, at 350 m

Soft tree fern and southern sassafras in Franklin-Gordon Wild Rivers National Park at 450 m

High altitude moor and eucalypt woodland in Franklin-Gordon Wild Rivers National Park. Frenchmans Cap (1446 m) in the background