Indirect human influences: If density of large herbivores is very high, even beech regeneration is damaged

European silver fir was originally the most common tree species in Czechia's virgin forest Žofínský prales. Due to damage from air pollution (particularly from the 1960s into the 1980s) and severe browsing by unnaturally abundant large herbivores, large parts of the reserve today consist of pure beech forest

Never logged, but in the absence of fire, Norway spruce has invaded this part of Pyhä-Häkki National Park, Finland. Two old Scots pines (Pinus sylvestris, left and right) remind us of ancient forest fires but pine cannot regenerate anymore